By using an example of communication phenomenon, how do you decide which theory cluster to refer to and choose a theory to explain the phenomenon.

apa itu komunikasi?

• proses menghantar dan menerima sesuatu maklumat daripada orang lain.

maksud fenomena?

• Fenomena merupakan suatu peristiwa yang nyata, sesuatu fakta, pewujudan atau perubahan yang dapat dilihat. . 

Fenomena komunikasi

• situasi dimana wujud interaksi antara dua atau lebih dari  individu.

Teori kluster yang boleh digunakan

1. komunikasi organisasi

• Rangka dalam organisasi
• Teori enakmen

     2. komunikasi interpersonal dan hubungan

• 
  

EXPLAIN WHY DIFFERENT THEORY CLUSTERS CAN HAVE THE SAME THEORIES UNDER IT.

Throughout his writings, Porter (2000) has been consistent in his definition of a cluster, which is a geographically proximate group of interconnected companies and associated institutions in a particular field, linked by communalities and complementarities, This only a highly synthesized version of the definition.

Clusters includes and functions can be summarized in the following two points, elements that make up a cluster and interconnectedness to produce growth, innovation and competitiveness. Clusters is its interconnectedness, the linkage among these elements.

MASS MEDIA ( THEORY CLUSTERS)

Mass media

1. Agenda setting Theory

History And Orientation

• ·       Agenda setting describes a very powerful influence of the media – the ability to tell us what issues are important.
• ·       In the research done in 1968 (McCombs & Shaw) they focused on two elements: awareness and information.

Core Assumption And Statements

CORE

•  Agenda-setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues by the news media.
• ·Two basis assumptions underlie most research on agenda-setting.

1.   the press and the media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it
2.  media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to perceive those issues as more important than other issues

• ·      One of the most critical aspects in the concept of an agenda-setting role of mass communication is the time frame for this phenomenon.
• ·        Different media have different agenda-setting potential. 

STATMENTS

• ·      Bernard Cohen (1963) stated: “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.”

Favorite Methods

• ·        Content-analysis of media, interviews of audiences.

Scope And Application

• ·      -Just as McCombs and Shaw expanded their focus, other researchers have extended investigations of agenda setting to issues including history, advertising, foreign, and medical news.

2.  KNOWLEDGE GAP

INCREASING GAP BETWEEN HIGHER AND LOWER EDUCATED PEOPLE

History And Orientation

• ·    The knowledge gap theory was first proposed by Tichenor, Donohue and Olien at the University of Minnesota in the 70s
• ·    They believe that the increase of information in society is not evenly acquired by every member of society: people with higher socioeconomic status tend to have better ability to acquire information (Weng, S.C. 2000).
• ·         This leads to a division of two groups: a group of better-educated people who know more about most things, and those with low education who know less
• ·    Lower socio-economic status (SES) people, defined partly by educational level, have little or no knowledge about public affairs issues, are disconnected from news events and important new discoveries, and usually aren’t concerned about their lack of knowledge.

Core Assumptions and Statements

• The knowledge gap can result in an increased gap between people of lower and higher socioeconomic status. 
• Mass media might have the effect of increasing the difference gap between members of social classes

Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1970) present five reasons for justifying the knowledge gap.

1. People of higher socioeconomic status have better communication skills, education, reading, comprehending and remembering information. 
2. People of higher socioeconomic status can store information more easily or remember the topic form background knowledge
3. People of higher socioeconomic status might have a more relevant social context.
4. People of higher socioeconomic status are better in selective exposure, acceptance and retention
5.  The nature of the mass media itself is that it is geared toward persons of higher socioeconomic status.

Favorite Methods

• ·         Surveys of mass media and tests of knowledge.

Concept, Model and Theory


What is concept?

- which is a mental image or general notion of something.
- it summarizes observations and ideas about all the characteristics of that image.
- some concept, like age and gender are easily understood and others, like group or oragnizational behavior can be observed, whereas some like attitudes and motivations are at best, inferred.


What is Model?

-  it is representation of reality, such as :-
a) causal model ( abstraction of a cause - and - affect relationship )
b) program model ( a service of intervention approach)
c) role model ( a person who serves as a behavioral or moral example)
d) statistical model ( a set of mathematical equations that describes behavior in terms of probability distributions)
e) working model ( a preliminary formulation of a theory or program that is used as an initial guide for thought or action.
f) business model ( a framework expressing the administrative logic of the agency)


What is Paradigm?
- it is often to used as a synonym for either a model or a conceptual framework.
- a paradigm shift is an entirely new way in which a concept is understood or defined.

What is Conceptual Framework
- it is a grouping of unrelated concepts used to explain a particular pattern or behavior
- the term is also used in lieu of theory, model and paradigm
- example:- Porter's job characteristics model or Maslow's common human needs theory.

What is Perspective?
- it is a point of view related to one's advantage point or experience.
- it is can be individual or shared

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION THEORY (PART 2)

Evaluation term is not about good or bad but it is about the usefulness of theory. Scholarly communication can be evaluated best capture the way to asses the relative usefulness of communication theories including accuracy, practically, simplicity, consistency and acuity.

1) Accuracy : the best theories correctly summarize the way communication actually works. A systematic supports the explanation provided by the theory.

2) Practicality : theories that are accurate but can't be used in everyday life are not as good theories that have great practical utility. There is nothing so practical as a good theory (Lewin, 1951).

3) Simplicity : to evaluate a good business or professional communication theory. The best way to think simplicity is to compare how much of communication is explained by the theory versus how many concepts and being used to explain it.

4) Consistency have both internal and external consistency.
a. Internal consistency, the idea of the theory are logically built on one another. A theory that purpose at one point that cooperation among the team members guarantees success and at a different point proposes that competition is more effective.
b. External consistency refers to the theory's consistency with other widely held theories. If we presume that the widely held theories are true, then the theory under evaluation that disagrees with those are true, then the theory under evaluation that disagrees with those believed supported theories also presents a logical problem.

5) Acuity : refers to the ability of a theory to provide insight into an otherwise intricate issue. A theory that explains a difficult problem, however is better than a theory that explains something less complex.

Source https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/4983_Dainton_Chapter_1.pdf?fbclid=IwAR3mYl-3l7uDJE2XC7UB7YdXKrw9fyRSIZh_WmiOXNHEIJ0WL2ak13pftuY

INDUKTIF DAN DEDUKTIF.

maksud dan perbezaan diantara induktif dan deduktif

induktif:kajian melalui induktif ini dimulakan dengan pemerhatian dan diakhiri dengan teori. kajian ini dinamakan sebagai 'bottom up'.ini kerana kajian ini dimulakan dengan pemerhatian dan diakhiri dengan teori.

           pemerhatian-pola-hipotesis-teori

dalam kajian ini pengkaji mestilah mencari kepada pola atau corak terlebih dahulu untuk dijadikan pemerhatian seterusnya dianalisis  dan diakhiri dengan teori.dalam kajian ini teori yang akan dapat diakhir kajian tidak selalunya tepat.


deduktif:kajian ini dimulakan dengan teori dan diakhiri dengan kepastian.kajian ini dinamakan sebagai "top down"kerana pengkaji memulakan kajian dengan teori dan diakhiri dengan kepastian.

           teori-hipotesis-pemerhatian-kepastian

dalam kajian ini pengkaji mestilah mengambil sebahagian data atau fakta yang terdahulu untuk dijadikan teori.diakhir kajian pengkaji akan mendapat pasti dimana kajiannya 100% benar.ini kerana dalam kajian ini dimulakan dengan teori yang sudah sedia ada.

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION THEORY

To illustrate, a theory of of customer service can help you to understand not only the bad customer service you received from your credit card company this morning, it can also help you understand a good customer service encounter you might have had at a restaurant last week.

Common sense theory is created by an individual's own personal experiences, or such theories might reflect helpful hints that are passed on from family members, friends or colleagues. They are useful to us and are often the basis for our decisions about how to communicate.

Working theories are generalizations made in particular professions about the best techniques for doing something. It is more closely represent guidelines for behavior rather than systematic representations.

Scholarly Theories provide more thorough, accurate and abstract explanations for communication than do commonsense or working theories. It is typically more complex and difficult to understand than commonsense or working theory.

There are 4 types of primary research methods :

1) Experiment : is ultimately concerned with causation and control. Experiment is the only research method that allows researchers to conclude that one thing causes another. For example, if you are intrested indetermining whether friendly customer service causes greater customer satisfaction, whether advertisers' use of bright colors produces highers sales, the only way to determine is through experimental research.  

2) Survey : the use of surveys does not allow researchers to make claim that one thing causes another. the strength of survey researches the only way to find out how someone thinks, feels or intend to behave. There are 2 types of survey research : interview & questionnaires.

3) Textual Analysis : is used to uncover the content, nature or structure of messages. It can also used to evaluate messages, focusing on their strengths, weaknesses, effectiveness or even ethicality. 

4) Ethnography : involves the researcher immersing him or herself into a particular culture or context to understand rules and meanings for that culture or context. It is focuses on the communication rules and meanings in a particular culture or context. 

Source https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/4983_Dainton_Chapter_1.pdf?fbclid=IwAR3mYl-3l7uDJE2XC7UB7YdXKrw9fyRSIZh_WmiOXNHEIJ0WL2ak13pftuY

For further understanding about primary & secondary research you can watch this video below 👇

Revision Guide

Communication Theory ( AK 102 ) Revision Guide

Question ;

1) By Referring to examples , why do communication scholar clusters theories according to communication fields ?

  By referring the examples this communication scholar clusters all those theories for easier to choose which theories are most suitable for some phenomenon . As we know that there is so many list of theories so its harder to choose if the theories are not being clustered . 

 There is many type of theory clusters such as interpersonal communication and relations , oraganizational communication , mass media , communication and information technology and etc . The thories are grouped into clusters to covering the similar topics . Note that we will find some similar topics in more than one place . The clusters also correspond with the topics .  

THEORY CLUSTERS

All the theories below are grouped into clusters covering the similar topics . Note that we can find some theories in more than one place . The clusters correspond with the topics used in the Communication studies at the University of Twente .

There are a few clusters and their theories being listed below ;

1) Interpersonal Communication and Relations 

-Interpersonal communication and Relations 

-Attribution theory 

-ACT* theory

-Argumentation theory 

-Contagion theory 

-classical Rhetoric

-Cognitive Dissonance theory

-Elaboration Likelihood Model

-Expectancy Value Model 

-Interpretative and Interction Theories 

-Language Expectancy theories

-Network Theory and Analysis

-Sensemaking

-Social Identity theory 

-Symbolic Interactionism

-Social Cognitive theory

-Speech Act

-Theory of Planned Behavior /Reasoned Action

-Uncertainty Reduction Theory

2) Organizational communication

-Organizational communication

-Adaptive Structuration Theory

-Attraction-Selection-Attrition Framework

-Competing Values Framework

-Contingency Theories

-Enactment theory

-Framing in organizations

-Groupthink

-Media Richness Theory

-Network Theory and Analysis in Organizations

-Sensemaking

-Structurational Theory

-System theory

-Uncertainty Reduction theory

3) Mass Media 

-Mass media

-Agenda Setting Theory

-Priming 

-Framing

-Cultivation theory

-Dependency theory

-Hypodermic Needle Theory

-Knowledge Gap

-Media Richness Theory

-Medium theory

-Spiral of Science

-Two step flow theory

-Uses and Gratification theory

4) Communication and information technology 

-Communication and information technology

-Adaptive Structuration

-Computer Mediated Communication

-Contextual Design

-Diffusion of Innovations theory

-Information theories

-Minimalism 

-Network theory and Analysis

-Reduces Social Cues Approach

-Social Identity Model of Deindivuation effects

-Social Presence Theory

-Uses and Gratification Approach

5) Communication processes

-Communication processes

-Framing

-Language Expectancy Theory

-Model of text Comprehension

-Network theory and Analysis

-Priming

-Psycho-Linguistic theory 

System theory

6)Health Communication 

-Elaboration Likelihood model

-Health Belief Model

-Protection Motivation theory

-Social cognitive theory

-social support

- Theory of planned behavior / Reasoned Action 

-Transactional model of stress and coping

7) Language theories and linguistics 

-Altercasting

-Argumentation theory

-Classical theory

-Coordinated management of meaning

-Language expectancy theory

-Model of text comprehension

-Psycho-Lingustic theory

-Speech Act 

8) Media , culture and society 

-Altercasting

-Domestication

-Cultivation theory

-Dependency theory

-Gatekeeping

-Knowledge Gap

-Medium theory

-Mental Models 

-Modernization theory

-Spiral of silence

9) Public Relations , advertising , marketing and consumer behavior

-Agenda setting theory

-Attraction-Selection-Attrition-Framework

-Attribution theory

-Cognitive Dissonance theory

-Elaboration likelihood theory 

-Expectancy value theory

-Priming

-Semiotics theories

-Theory of planned behavior/ reasoned action

-Uncertainty reduction theory 

LIST OF THEORIES

1. Advertising, public relations, marketing in consumer behavior.
2. Busines communication.
3. Communication/ general
4. Communication barriers
5. Communication in practice
6. Communication models
7. Cultural communication
8. Development communication
9. Group communication
10. Intercultural communication
11. Interpersonal communication
12. Mass communication
13. Organisational communication
14. Political communication
15. Psychology, behavioral and social science
16. Technical communication
17. Visual communication

Fact vs Theory vs Hypothesis vs Law


What is fact?

- We give a explanation.
- Observation about the world around us. For example: It is bright outside (that is the fact)

What is hypothesis? 

- Something that you test and you confirmed it.
- A proposed explanation for a phenomenon made as a starting point for further investigation. For        example: It is bright outside because the sun is probably out.

What is Theory? 

- Know something works based on evidence and to make predictions
- A well-substantiated explanation acquired through the scientific method and repeatedly tested and      confirmed ( through observation and experimentation). For example: when the sun is out, it tends to    make it bright outside.

What is Law? 

- A statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some phenomenon of            nature. Proof that something happens and how it happens. For example : formula of gravity law on      Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.



                             facts → hypothesis → testing → theory → predictions